To a wonderful man, a teacher who, in his own very special way, was a true contributor to the good of the community and those students placed in his charge. A man who gathered many a troublesome youngster under his ample wing and planted in his mind the tiny seed of hope in the future. And who nurtured this young sprout, for a time in the classroom and field, then later in spirit and fond memory, until it blossomed into the book which you hold in your hands or view on your computer screen.

To my indefatigable mentor - and dear friend

Gardening has been a part of my life since my early teens. There has always been a plant to tend; always a few seeds to sow; always many weeds to pull; and always a juicy, fresh fruit or succulent vegetable to pick and bite into.

How about you? Are plants a part of your life too? Have you been really successful? Or have you longed for the absolute perfect garden yet, try as you may, found that it hovered just beyond your reach? A great many people have had that same feeling, so near yet, seemingly, so far away. You can achieve the goal which so many other gardeners strive for but only occasionally attain. There are some easy-to-understand tips and methods which if applied, can bring you, and any gardener willing to listen, much closer to that elusive dream garden.

Imagine a very large, strong, wooden gate flanked by a tall fence, much too tall to see over. Now imagine a sign at eye-level which identifies what's on the other side: "Garden." There's a door knob; it turns, but the door won't open. Peering through a tiny hole grants but the skimpiest glimpse of a beautifully landscaped garden with virtually perfect lawns, healthy plants and lovely flowers but you can't get the gate open. It's locked!

Try as you may, the gate simply cannot be forced open. No amount of knocking, pounding or calling out will grant you entrance. You can't climb over it; there's no way to go around it. No amount of spending at nurseries or garden centers will gain you access. Leafing through all the lovely gardening picture books in the world will not pry open that locked gate. Nothing can get you inside except the right keys. Actually, lots of keys for, you see, there are ten locks. Each one takes a separate key, with precisely-ground notches, and the gate will not swing fully open until all ten keys have been acquired, inserted and turned in their locks. While the locks may open in any random sequence, the process is quicker and certainly more rewarding if they're unlocked in a logical, in some cases, responsible, order.

So it is in more than just a few home gardens. There are so many sincere, well-meaning folks who struggle along with one or two, perhaps half or more, of the vital keys to successful gardening, but the gate to their healthy, satisfying, productive and beautiful dream garden never seems to swing fully open for them. Yes, the knowledge and application of each inserted and turned key may allow that garden gate to open a tiny bit, but it takes all ten to swing the door fully open, to do the job right, so elbows, knees, and sensitivities, aren't bruised as the gardener passes through.

A person may have ideal soil and a strong desire, for example, yet without the vital key of a logical plan, no carefully thought out organization, their dream garden eludes them. They might even have found all but one of the keys. Yet failing to apply one of the oft-neglected requirements (faithful, routine maintenance, for example), the gateway to their dream garden refuses to fully open! Few gardeners, indeed, have the patience or are willing to invest the time needed to search out and learn the vital, yet simple, keys to real gardening success and, therefore, satisfaction.

The book you're holding in your hands or viewing on a computer screen can help you find the keys you need to swing open the gate to your dream garden. No, this work doesn't contain all the minutia of detail, or page after page of stunning and inspiring color photography and illustration. Yes, there are many other opinions and divergent gardening philosophies on coffee tables and filling the shelves of libraries and book stores all across the land. Yes, to some degree, most of those ideas and techniques work. Yes, expensive full-color coffee table books of magnificent gardens located halfway around the world make wonderful gifts and may even contain some of the vital keys hidden among the photos. It takes far more than pictures and colorful descriptions, however, to make a truly successful gardener!

What I've tried to accomplish in this work is to gather those necessary keys onto one ring, so to speak ¾ to place them into one volume of hard-hitting, straight-talking, uncompromising facts. I don't believe in beating around the bush, and it has never been my intent to produce a work thick with long lists of recommended plants or flowers. I did not plan to please the senses with a volume overflowing with lovely photographs.

What you'll read here is straight talk, common sense concepts and methods proven by decades of trial and error. It has all been birthed in successes and, yes, tempered by more than a few failures. In short, and most importantly, it works for me and there's nary a reason why it'll fail to work for you. I begin this book certain that some may argue and denounce. I've seen this book to its climax knowing full well, and satisfied, that quite a few things which should have been given wide publicity a long time ago have at last seen the light of day!

So get yourself comfortable and keep a pad and pencil handy to record a few notes. Read to enjoy, but most importantly, read with the goal of improving your chances of gaining access to that perfect garden and, at the conclusion, step into your garden masterpiece by inserting each of these important Keys to the Garden Gate.  (Back To Table of Contents)

What first-year student of law would consider marching boldly into court to defend world-class criminals before completing a thorough study of criminal law? Would she not first devote full energy and the necessary years to the process of learning the myriad nuances of law and courtroom procedure and politics?

Neither the unschooled physician-to-be nor the untrained and inexperienced aspiring attorney stands much more than a gasp of a chance of real, lasting success without first building a firm and secure foundation of knowledge. So it is with the student in the study of gardening. It seems only reasonable to begin a quest for the perfect garden by setting all else aside for the moment, and delving headlong into a subject as basic as - soils.

Almost literally, everything depends on healthy and alive soil! Because I feel so strongly that a thorough understanding of this foundational principle is essential, I'll spend ample time and space in this and other closely related chapters to make certain that the keys dealing with soil, once inserted into the lock, will function according to plan. So let's strip away all the too-technical outer layers and get right to the very core of the matter and, from the start, build our garden's strong and durable soil foundation.

Picture in your mind the immense, sterile and probably very hot orbiting mass of rock and minerals that made up our earth shortly after its physical formation a few billion years ago.

Volcanoes flung massive rocks and debris mixed with choking smoke and hot gasses into the heavens from whence they returned to earth with a thundering crescendo. Boulders cracked and fell apart as they were cooled by rain and pounding waves. Moisture soaked deep into rock crevices, then froze. Expanding ice forced chunks and slices to split away, further reducing their size. Torrents of water rushing between fractured pieces of stone stirred them into a seething, crashing, giant cauldron of shattering rocks. Pieces of stone grew smaller and smaller as the incessant action of sun's rays, glaciers, winds of storm and the pounding rain of gigantic hurricanes and tornadoes gradually reduced once-huge boulders into pebbles and tiny grains of sand.

Add the ash and chemicals released by countless fuming volcanoes, and the still-mysterious sudden appearance of life, and after thousands times thousands of millennia of decaying plants and fallen animal life we have an active, though dangerously thin, residue we know as soil.

When you get right down to the nitty-gritty, soil is little more than a collection of tiny rock fragments, a little water, some air, minerals and decayed plants and animals. Reach down, scoop up a handful of the stuff and allow your imagination to soar. A close look reveals surprising lessons in chemistry and geology, biology and even history.

Blended with tiny grains of sand - fragments of once-huge boulders - are a wide array of complex ingredients. There are the remains of dinosaurs and giant pre-historic birds. Decayed corpses of giant trees, once lush and green. Frogs and bugs, men and women of ages long past, and all their wastes and garbage, now reduced to molecule-size specks of natural history. And tiny bits of precious metals and gems; once beautiful mansions and tiny cottages; stone-age tools and wood chips from a pioneer's adz; an old wooden toy lost perhaps centuries ago by one of your ancestors; and maybe the ashes of some long-forgotten funeral pyre.

There's an arrowhead and musket ball; a nail from the boot of an early settler and rotted slivers of railroad ties; the charred remains of clapboards and shingles which may have graced the home of a departed poet; love letters and priceless manuscripts reduced, by time and the elements, to dust, never to be read again! Flecks of paint, a clay marble and bits of iron from an old skillet. A powdery "soup" of sand, chemicals, minerals and organic matter slowly building itself, layer upon layer, into the very basis of human survival.

That's not all! Our handful of soil is so marvelously alive with countless tiny life forms, little wonder it doesn't writhe and pulsate as we hold it! The tiniest life cannot be seen but with a powerful microscope, yet they are, none the less, crucial to the health and structure of soil. They are the minute creatures and plant forms, the most important of which we call bacteria and fungi.

BACTERIA: Unbelievable as it must surely sound, there can be as many as one billion bacteria in a single gram of healthy soil. An acre of soil one foot thick can contain 1,000 pounds of bacteria! Though fragile and subject to damage when active and growing, they are rugged little rascals while in their resting stage resisting heat, cold, flood and drought. Puts me in mind of much larger animals that hibernate or use some other form of temporary suspended animation when the going gets tough.

Aerobic bacteria, those that require oxygen to survive, play an active role in converting nitrogen into more readily available ammonia and nitrates. They are also responsible, in part, for the efficient breakdown of organic material in the compost pile using, in the process, nitrogen as their fuel (much more about nitrogen and other soil nutrients in Chapter Three). Certain types of bacteria are less helpful in the garden and cause several distressing plant diseases (you'll read more of that in Chapter Seven).

Anaerobic bacteria are those which can survive without oxygen. The foul odor arising from a closed plastic bag full of recently mowed grass clippings, for example, is produced by the action of anaerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacterial action is sometimes deliberately employed in the composting process but results are slow and odors can be oppressive.

FUNGI: Most fungi are important in the decomposition of organic matter and are present in much smaller numbers in soil, about one million per gram. Yet, because of their size, they weigh significantly more than bacteria, as much as one ton per acre! Fungi are actually plants on a near-microscopic scale growing into tangled masses of thready mycelium. They require oxygen and are generally well behaved in healthy, cultivated soil. Other types of fungi, however, are highly undesirable in the garden, causing infections on plants including rusts and various molds and mildews.

Bacteria and fungi are far from alone in healthy earth. In almost any discussion of creatures that inhabit the soil, EARTHWORMS are sure to come immediately to mind. They are the only insects which have no eyes, head, teeth, antennae or legs, the absence of which, though somewhat limiting, presents only minimal inconvenience. Oddly enough, one type of earthworm, the night crawler, instantly reacts to the white glow of a flashlight even though technically blind. They must have exquisitely fine tuned sensors of another type!

These wriggly and somewhat slippery little burrowers eat their way through the soil gulping down nearly everything in their paths which they sense is organic. Soil is taken in, passes through a digestive system not unlike a bird's gizzard, where ingredients which provide nourishment for the worm are extracted. Material that fails to satisfy its needs is expelled as "castings." This excrement quite often ends up on the surface and is normally higher in mineral content than the soil from whence it came. Since earthworms occupy depths ranging to several feet (depending on soil condition) this waste material serves the function of moving important nutrients around, making them more readily available to plants. Earthworms also aerate soils and their tunnels make it easier for water to penetrate rather than run off. Most gardeners are overjoyed to provide a suitable home for large colonies of earthworms and realize that these busy little subterranean cultivators should be preserved at all costs.

Practically every handful of soil in the world, with the possible exception of the permanently frozen northern- and southern-most sections, and hot, dry deserts, contains an abundance of another type of underground creature: NEMATODES. Sightless and "intellectually disadvantaged" (they have no brain at all!), nematodes wander about looking for the nearest live root which they immediately attach themselves to and feed upon, frequently causing a small "knot" to form. Hence the name of a most troublesome type: root-knot nematode.

Nature usually does a decent job of controlling nematodes. The alternating heat and cold followed by drying out and saturation that occurs in most soils makes over-population an unlikelihood. Some types of fungi, constricting fungi, will actually attack, strangle and then consume nematodes. Bacteria, viruses, springtails, mites and a number of other soil-dwelling organisms also prey upon nematodes. On occasion, however, nematode populations get out of hand or one species or another will attack a particular type of plant. Sober thought must then be given to timely, if not drastic, control measures. In the event of a serious infestation, crop rotation discourages nematodes, as does thoroughly drying out the soil and exposing it to the bright, direct sunlight.

Certain types of nematodes can actually be helpful. A readily available nematode-based product attacks other pesky insects that spend at least some time during their development in the soil, cutworms and other insect larvae, for example. Additionally, there are even nematodes that prey mostly on other, more noxious nematodes.

Other Soil Life-Forms

In addition to bacteria, fungi, earthworms and nematodes, soil is home for a large and diverse group of life forms, chiefly insects. While a few live solely by predation or by consuming decaying plant material, the vast majority will at least occasionally feed upon, and therefore damage, living plant structures.

For now, it is enough to know that healthy soil is absolutely alive and crawling with a wondrous assortment of inhabitants, most of which are no real cause for concern. Just because you see a few "bugs" doesn't necessarily mean you have a problem serious enough to run for a bottle of insecticide. When one or the other proliferates and begins to damage or jeopardize a crop, however, that's the time to become concerned. Remember that a healthy, rich, well-drained soil with ample nutrition and moisture produces strong, healthy disease- and insect-resistant plants. Think of it: with healthy soil, and a little luck, you may never need insecticides again!

Soils, formed by the mechanical or chemical breakdown of rock, can become highly mobile. Rushing water carries away great quantities to be deposited far down-stream, where they become known as ALLUVIAL soils. Fine mud and clay, usually having poor drainage characteristics were it not for the addition of coarser grit and organic material, fall into this category. Fertile valleys between mountain ranges, the great amazon basin and the Mississippi Delta are examples. Such land is highly productive but in parts of the world, Bangladesh, for example, agricultural productivity is over-shadowed by loss of human and domestic animal life resulting from periodic flooding and storm. Undisturbed alluvial soils in profile reveal layer upon layer of different sized particles resulting from annual periodic flooding.

Wind is active in moving vast quantities of tiny specks of rock and organic material to be released downwind in concentrations reminiscent of sand dunes and snowdrifts. Accumulations of this type are referred to as LOESS (pronounced low-ess). Much of North and South America, and large areas of Europe and Asia, are made up of wind-blown sediments. History books tell of the disastrous dust storms of 1930s America and parts of Canada following several years of drought. When the storms had subsided, precious topsoil that once covered thousands of square miles of valuable farmland had all but disappeared.

Glaciers, too, pick up and move particles in astonishing quantities, leaving them hundreds, sometimes thousands of miles from where they began. Glacial soil is typically referred to as TILL and is usually well-drained, but nutrient-poor.

In a few places, notably the bogs of Canada and parts of the British Isles, soil is composed almost exclusively of built-up organic matter, generally (or until relatively recent times) covered with water. Soils formed in this manner have come to be known as RESIDUAL. Most gardeners are very familiar with material harvested from such areas. Peatmoss is its name and, when incorporated into the home garden, improving soil structure is said to be its game.

More than a few believe that recent periods of unfavorable harvesting weather, combined with what appears to be a certain desire on the part of peatmoss harvesters and packagers to increase profits, have led to occasional shortages at the retail level and some rather distressing adjustments in prices.

Not surprisingly, wind, water and the influence of humans have combined forces for thousands of years to create soils made up of a mixture of all four. Who among us has not seen dump trucks carting topsoil from one place to another? What avid gardener has not purchased bag after bag of peatmoss, sand, compost, manure and a host of other ingredients to improve his or her garden soil? Surely, all have witnessed a cloud of dust or seen fast-flowing muddy water.

A handful of today's "average" garden soil is composed of tiny (and some not so tiny) grains of sand and clay, bits of history and varying percentages of organic matter mixed with an almost endless assortment of chemical elements and life forms, hopefully separated by some air space and moistened from the heavens.

Most soils exist in "layers" starting with the uppermost: a crust we call surface-soil or TOPSOIL. In some parts of the world, topsoil is several feet thick while in others, near large sections of the New England coast for example, this usable layer may reach a depth of only a few inches or less. It is in this layer where most of the organic matter is found. Five percent organic matter is common though that may be slightly higher in seldom-cultivated soils and markedly lower in heavily used land. Generally, the more organic matter a soil contains the more moisture and nutrients it is able to retain and, therefore, the more life it is able to support.

Topsoil is usually the coarsest layer and is most commonly comprised of about half solids and half air space. Soils lacking in adequate air are unhealthy soils. Clay soils have less air space; sandy or gravelly soils allow more room for air. Since water displaces air, when it rains or floods, air is forced out. Very few garden plants or field crops thrive in saturated soil, so another very important characteristic of a healthy soil is drainage. Water tends to move in a downward direction, down hill. Very simply put: a healthy soil, composed of a mix of different-size particles and ample organic matter, accepts and retains the water it can use and allows excess to drain away. (More on drainage in a later paragraph.)

Directly beneath the surface-soil layer in most gardens lies the sub-surface soil which, if it were deeply cultivated, would normally be considered topsoil. However, most gardeners rarely, if ever, do more than scratch around the surface three or four inches.

Now comes primary soil layer number two: SUBSOIL. Here, the structure is much finer, often mineral-bearing clay. When water reaches the subsoil it usually slows down a great deal. Soil color changes, too, as the percentage of organic matter approaches zero. Subsoils are, however, a very necessary reservoir for nutritional elements, mostly mineral, which nearly all plants require to remain healthy. This quite necessary layer in garden soils serves to anchor plants, provide a storehouse of available nutrients and act as a reservoir to water the vast assortment of plant forms that we—or Nature—choose to place in it.

Normally, either solid or fractured rock lies directly beneath subsoil. I've heard this almost impermeable layer called "hard-pan," "bedrock" and more correctly (at least in my garden) "ledge." Practically nothing gets through this layer, with the possible exception of nitrogen in solution.

Observing the color of a sample of soil can reveal a great deal about its health and organic matter content. In real life, darker soils - brown to black - contain higher percentages of organic matter. In very warm and tropical areas, however, dark soils can contain as little as 3% organic material. So, as you can see, the rule has not been cast in bronze. Conversely, a soil that is light in color - light brown to tan - usually contains very little organic matter.

In most temperate areas, deep, very dark, loose, humusy and well-drained soil is almost always accompanied by healthy plants, ample flowers and generous harvests. Most slightly-better-than-average vegetable or flower gardens contain about 10% to 15% organic matter. More improved soils boast 25% to 30%.

A dead-giveaway of a "chemical garden" - one which rarely, if ever receives compost, manure, cover crops or any other useful form of organic matter - is what I call a "step-down" garden. Step-down gardens are a light tan color, usually contain large numbers of surface stones and are always lower than the surrounding lawn, paths or weed patch. There is precious little life in the soil of a step-down garden. Such soils cry out for a good shot of organic matter like compost or aged animal manure! In my opinion, a step-up garden should be the goal of every person who makes a conscious commitment and decision to be a responsible steward of soils and plants.

Very few cultivated plants prosper in soils that have impaired Drainage. Drainage is divided into five distinct classifications. Well-drained soils allow roots to penetrate to a depth of about 36" without running into excess water. Moderately well drained soils, the type found in most improved and deeply cultivated gardens permit roots to reach 18" to 20" deep without being hampered by excess water. Roots in somewhat poorly drained soils rarely penetrate beyond 12" or 14" deep. Soils that remain wet most of the time are referred to as poorly-drained. Alders and willows are common in these conditions, as is the presence of some types of ferns, mosses and wetland wildflowers like purple loosestrife and jack-in-the-pulpit. Water stands on or near the surface nearly all year on very poorly drained soils. Pseudacorus iris (yellow flag) thrives in these conditions; very little else except weeds and some aquatic plants will even barely survive there.

A soil which is easily cultivated, one in which lumps readily fall apart when spaded, is referred to as having good tilth. The same term also applies to soils through which roots can easily penetrate, and which tiny seedlings can break through with ease.

One very important characteristic gardeners have considerable control over is soil temperature. Below 18" to 24" deep, temperature rarely changes, except in the far north where deep-winter frost penetrates to as much as 4 feet, or more! Within a few inches of the surface, however, temperatures change almost as much as ambient air temperature. As you might have guessed, dark, rich soil warms up faster in sunlight than does lighter, poorer types.

Germinating seeds are usually inhibited by cooler soils, whereas in warmer ones infant plants almost leap out of the ground. Mulches tend to moderate soil temperature, keeping it a little cooler during the worst heat of summer (also conserving moisture and hindering the growth of weeds), and preventing frost from penetrating quite as deep during the worst cold of winter. Soil temperature can be artificially raised in the spring through the use of dark-colored coverings like roofing paper, black landscape weed barrier or dark-colored polyethylene sheeting.

Frequent walking or driving heavy machinery, garden tractors, and loaded carts and wheelbarrows on garden soils can cause soil compaction. Structure and tilth are ruined; neither air nor water can be absorbed; and plant roots cannot penetrate. Compacted soils can be restored to health by deep aerating and cultivating, and by planting cover crops like annual clover or grasses which may be tilled-in later. My advice to you is to never tread on, or allow visitors or children to tread on, any garden soil, especially if it's just been cultivated or watered.

A Gnawing Problem

Alas, soil is now seeing itself wasted and impoverished at the hands of its greatest enemy: humankind. In our hunger for riches, our lust for pleasures and our characteristic striving for dominance, we blindly and tragically abuse the very resource that supports in one way or another every life form on the face of our troubled, exhausted and sometimes contaminated Earth.

Vast areas of our planet lie utterly useless mostly because of a stewardship philosophy of take all, get everything, but put little or nothing back. Some among us soothe their consciences and fatten their wallets by pouring on huge quantities of chemicals to make up for the exhausted natural nutrients and humus. The result: diminished food and forage production, and considerably reduced nutritional value. Tangled among the snarls of greed and waste are enlargement of wastelands and deserts, destruction of life forms vital to the proper function of our food chain, fouling of critical water supplies, and other crises, not the least of which is a stunning increase in chronic illness and debilitating disease.

A glaring and prime example of tragic loss of food-producing land is dramatized by chemical salt build-up in California's once-fertile San Fernando Valley. But the awful waste is certainly not limited to our American southwest. Starved for humus (organic matter normally found in healthy soil), and artificially fed and watered, thousands times thousands of acres of land the world over can almost be heard as they gasp their pitiful last breaths.

Sorry about getting a little ahead of myself here. What's important to remember at this point is that topsoil, no matter where or in what blessed or shameful condition of health, is a key link in our food chain, our life chain. Argue as some do, there is no escaping the appalling fact that if our soil goes, we go! If and when that happens, rest assured, it won't be pleasant. Truth be known, much of our once-productive land is either gone, or is well on its way to literal oblivion, unless something is done about it, soon.

The stinging conclusion is inescapable: We all have an obligation to protect every remaining ounce of soil and scrap of compostible organic matter. Just as it is our right and privilege to be a part of and partake of the resources provided for us, it is our responsibility, right and privilege to preserve, indeed, improve and restore, that which our children and all succeeding generations must rely upon for their very existence. More's to follow relating to these and other pressing responsibilities in later chapters.

~~~

There you have it, a quick and very basic course in soils. An exposition on the subject could get a great deal more complicated but enough is given here to lay the groundwork for what's to come. From this point on I'll assume that you are striving to become a responsible gardener and have at very least average garden soil capable of supporting plant life. I'll also assume that your "average" soil needs some help in the way of amendments or other improvements. Your job will be to find out exactly what your particular plot has in the way of essential nutrients, minerals and humus; whether it's acid or alkaline; and what type of soil you have to work with.

To help you do that...  (Back To Table of Contents)

Suppose someone asked you to make a cake. All the ingredients, still in their boxes, jars, cans and bags, have been laid out before you. You've been given bowls, spoons, spatulas, measuring cups, a mixer and an oven. You have the time and inclination to do the best possible job. You may know how to run the mixer; likely as not you're familiar with the utensils and oven. Just suppose, however, that you've never made a cake before and you were not provided a cookbook! Not even a recipe card! Some people might (quite by accident) end up with a tasty cake but the odds are against it. Even experienced chefs rely on cookbooks or recipe cards. Considerable experience is also frequently at the side of a master cook.

Without a cookbook or detailed instructions and, lacking much experience in the kitchen, you'd be about in the same position as the person who tries to read a book at night without a light turned on. Tackling the job of gardening, growing things in the ground, without knowing exactly what's in soil is just like trying to read in total darkness or attempting to create a beautiful and sumptuous culinary masterpiece without a recipe. Yet that is precisely what a large majority of well-meaning people who think of themselves as gardeners do every time they step into their gardens.

Answer a few questions honestly: What's the pH of your garden soil? (For that matter, what's pH?) Do you have alkaline, or acid, soil? What is the percentage content of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash? What percentage of your soil is organic matter? Do you know precisely how much fertilizer or lime to add?

If you are like a great many gardeners all over the world, just like the many who've come to me with gardening problems, chances are you haven't the faintest idea.

Two of the most revealing answers I get from the questions, "What was the pH of your soil the last time you had it tested?" and "When was the last time your soil was tested?" is "I dunnow" and "Oh, it's never been tested, as far as I know," respectively. If either or both of those would have been your answer, you might consider a few timely changes.

Hardly a week during the growing season goes by without someone with a garden problem telling me, "Listen...I don't think I need to have a soil test done! I've been growing plants for years...I think I'm in a good position to know what's in my soil." One gruff, long-time gardener even told me, "Leave them soil tests to someone who don't know what they're doin', young fella." Yet, this same "experienced gardener" had come in with a problem which could have been solved easily and quickly by an inexpensive soil test and a superficial knowledge of fertilizer function. (He had tomato plants over-running his garden but, by the middle of August [in Maine], they hadn't even blossomed! His plants should have been loaded with fruit by then. It turned out he had been feeding all season with pure urea nitrogen¾ 45-0-0!) Most gardeners with problems relating to soil pH or nutrition would be surprised out of their socks if they had their soil tested and found out what's not there!

A key that fits into a lock must have exactly the right notch filed in it before it'll work properly. Soil testing (done either by a reputable laboratory or yourself using one of the somewhat less reliable over-the-counter kits) is one of the notches that helps make this second foundational key work the way it should.

A number of environmental conditions have a direct bearing on the quality (and often quantity) of plants grown in soil. Very high on that list is acidity or alkalinity, commonly referred to as pH. For those who need to know everything, "p" actually stands for potential and "H" for Hydrogen. Some garden writers say the letters stand for "power of Hydrogen." In any event, what really counts is the quantity of hydrogen ions in a soil. The more of them, the more acidic the soil. Acidic soil is said to be "sour" while alkaline soil is supposed to be "sweet." Old-time gardeners are still around who say they can estimate approximate pH of soil by tasting it. After having learned of the existence of all those little critters, bones, funguses, animal wastes, bacteria and no telling what else that's in soil, I guess I'll rely on my little electronic pH tester!

pH is measured on a logarithmic scale having a range of 14 steps. ("Logarithmic" simply means that a pH of 6 is ten times more acidic than 7; 5 is ten times more acidic than 6, and so on.) Dead center on that scale, at pH 7, is neutral, neither acidic nor alkaline. pH values lower than 7 are acidic (the lower the number, the more acidic the soil) while values higher than 7 are alkaline.

Soils in the northern parts of the US lean in the direction of acidic while those in southern sections, particularly in areas experiencing little rainfall, the desert southwest, for example, tend toward alkaline. The reason: modern acidic rainfall usually makes soils, ponds and lakes more acidic. The more rain, generally the more acidic the soil becomes. Deserts and other arid regions receive very little precipitation, so pH tends to moderate.

Very little, if anything at all, will grow in soils with a pH roughly 3.5 or below, or approximately 8 or above. There are, however, exceptions to every rule. Some plants, notably holly, hydrangea, most ivys, gardenias, blueberries, lily of the valley, rhododendrons and oak trees prefer a fairly acidic environment. German bearded iris, delphinium, sweetpeas, peonia and some others are at their best in an alkaline soil. Actually, most plants are really quite forgiving when it comes to pH. All but a few types of plants will do just fine in a range of pH 6.5 - 7.5.

A most important effect of pH is that role which it plays in the availability of nutrients, either those already in the soil, or nutrition in the form of fertilizer of one type or another applied by the gardener. Phosphorus, for example, is bound up and almost totally locked away from plants in moderately- to strongly-acid soil (below pH 6). No matter how hard plants try, or how much of the nutrient you apply, they simply can't get at it. Additionally, phosphorus availability is somewhat restricted when pH is between about 7.8 and 8.5 (moderately alkaline). Molybdenum, one of nine "trace" elements important to plant growth (according to many authorities), is also blocked in soil which is too acidic but is unaffected by alkaline conditions. Other essential nutrients appear to be indifferent to reasonable shifts in pH. A good rule of thumb to insure that nutrients are always available to plants is: balance pH for optimum phosphorus availability (6.5 to 7.5) and all other elements generally fall into line.

Having said all that about pH, the entire matter can often be simplified by maintaining your soil in as near perfect health as is humanly possible. Avoiding the unwise or unnecessary application of harsh chemicals and pesticides, and the frequent addition of organic materials (humus: compost, peatmoss, leaf mold, sterilized manures) all combine to keep soils at or near ideal pH levels for most crops.

Of course it is possible to have too much of a good thing but the informed gardener, exercising wisdom combined with knowledge, can enjoy a bounty of most vegetables and flowers grown in rich, healthy soil without having to worry much about pH. Concerned, yes; worried, no. In later chapters you'll hear more about pH and the addition of organic matter to enrich your soil along with complete instructions for changing your soil's pH or selecting the right plants for your existing conditions.

No plant can prosper, indeed, very few can even survive, in soil or other growing media which does not contain at least some nutrition - food. Plants need substances like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and a number of lesser elements generally referred to as micronutrients (or 'traces' or 'minors'). Each of these elements has a specific purpose or effect on a plant. To briefly summarize what's to follow, here's a thumbnail sketch of each of the three "primary" plant nutrients:

Nitrogen (always the first number in common fertilizer formulas) stimulates and encourages tender new growth. Therefore, when thinking of the need or desire for foliage, think of nitrogen.

Phosphorus, always the second or middle number in a fertilizer formula, generally encourages flowering and, therefore, seed or fruit production. It also provides for healthy growth and roots, and enhances a plant's ability to resist disease.

Potassium (or potash), always the final number in primary fertilizer formulas, causes plants to be strong and able to resist not only disease, but drought and cold as well.

All of which appropriately leads us to the next key, and some straight talk about fertilizers. 
(Back To Table of Contents)

Just as humans cannot survive on the intake of water alone, neither can your plants. We need proteins, various kinds of sugars and some of the right kinds of fat. In addition, our very complex human system must have a ready supply of fiber, vitamins and minerals to prosper. Without these elements, sickness, disease and physical weakness quickly move in to replace good and vibrant health. It should not, therefore, be too difficult for us to understand that our plants also require a consistent and readily available supply of not only water, but essential nutrients as well.

Here comes an important little tidbit of knowledge, one which every truly successful gardener knows and respects: just as predatory animals almost always seek out the young, vulnerable, injured or weak as their prey, so also do harmful insects and diseases attack plants which are stressed and weakened by major deficiencies of essential nutrients.

Where do these nutrients for plants come from? Some gardeners obtain theirs from a bag purchased at the store or garden center; others from a bottle or bag of one of the many brands of liquid and granular concentrate. Still others reject the use of man-made artificial or chemical substances altogether and derive nutrition from more-or-less natural sources like animal manure, urine, fully-organic composts, ground bones, dried blood and perhaps even ground shoe leather or pulverized rocks.

Generally, rather than choosing to place myself squarely on one side or other of the chemical/natural debate, I've selected a "middle-ground," recommending heavy reliance upon compost, bonemeal and thoroughly decomposed animal wastes and, for the flower garden, the modest and judicious use of a complete commercial fertilizers. Flowers, of course, will do just fine on an all-natural diet, just as fruits and vegetables grow and appear perfectly healthy on a strict chemical diet. I do not, however, recommend using any more chemicals on plants grown for food than is absolutely necessary. . .if any at all. Common sense, sensitivity and practicality rule here. If you find the thought of using man-made fertilizer products in your garden repulsive, then by all means don't use them. As for me, I wouldn't want too many of these chemicals leaching into my well (or my neighbor's) either, so I use them only when necessary, applying just enough to satisfy the plant's needs without excess.

Three primary nutrients are required by most plants: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium, also known as potash (K). They are represented in the three-digit formulas printed on fertilizer containers and always appear in that order. So 10-10-10, for instance, means there are ten parts of nitrogen, ten of phosphorus and ten of potassium (plus a significant amount of "filler" material for bulk and weight). Other required lesser nutrients are occasionally contained in trace amounts in some blended (and generally more expensive) "complete" fertilizers.

Here, in a nutshell, is what the three primary nutrients do for your plants: Nitrogen is for foliage - lush, dark green (and tender) foliage. Phosphorus insures strong stems and flowers. Potassium is for strength, winter survivability, resistance to disease and healthy roots.

This element, the first component in the standard three-number fertilizer formula and represented by the letter "N," put very simply, is for foliage - leaves.

Focusing primarily on the perennial garden for a moment, normally we're interested in masses of flowers, strong stems and big healthy crowns, roots, bulbs and rhizomes, but not a lot of soft, green leaves. So, knowing nitrogen is for soft, green foliage, it doesn't make sense to spread large amounts of nitrogen in a flower garden.

If you use chemical fertilizers, and you aren't particularly anxious for an abundance of soft foliage, start with one that has a low first number in the NPK formula. In our two-and-one-half acres of gardens where the beds, borders and growing areas are surrounded by large trees which quickly gobble up every fragment of nutrition and drop of water, we supplement the heavy use of compost (our soils are maintained at 55% to 65% or more organic matter) by lightly feeding with 10-10-10 at the first sign of growth in the spring and once again during the first week of July.

If you garden organically and aren't forced to sacrifice the lion's share of nutrition to a forest canopy, compost and well-rotted manure should provide most of the nitrogen you need, so, in this case, avoid the use of natural materials which contain large amounts of nitrogen in your flower beds. Bloodmeal, for instance, contains a lot of nitrogen (15) so it wouldn't be wise to apply it too heavily if you hope for gardens full of flowers, fruits or non-leafy vegetables. I'll expand on the subject of organic fertilizers a little later.

Here are three more reasons for not using too much nitrogen: 1. chemical nitrogen is "hot" and highly volatile and you can burn plants in a hurry with even just a little too much; 2. because it is so soluble, it leaches out of the soil rapidly. Indeed, it almost seems to flow right through solid rock and will head straight for your well or nearby lakes or streams; 3. nitrogen may make the plant's leaves look great, but it also makes them soft. Soft growth experiences difficulty surviving a harsh winter, like those considered normal in the northern tier of states.

A common error of uninformed cold-climate perennial gardeners is fertilizing through summer and right up to frost. The poor plants are so soft and tender that winter knocks 'em right out! Plenty of nursery owners, when trying to calm an irate customer whose purchases failed to survive a difficult winter, have heard, "Well (!), I fed them every week with [product "X" or some other formula probably high in nitrogen] right up 'til frost...they should have been healthy enough to live through a little snow!"

Imagine yourself spending the entire summer relaxing in the shady lap of luxury, sipping sweetened iced tea and plumping-up on bonbons. Then at winter's sudden arrival, you're left outdoors without even a light jacket. Your "hardy" perennial plants would freeze to death, too! Just as you need time to adjust to changes in temperature, and probably a good pair of long-johns too, so also do your plants require several weeks to "harden-off" (toughen-up) and make themselves ready for freezing temperatures.

In my experience, no nitrogen should be applied after about July 4 in USDA Zone 4, July 15 in Zone 5, August 1 in Zone 6, August 15 in Zone 7, and September 1 in Zone 8. Of course there are always exceptions to general rules such as these. Micro-climates, unusual periodic weather patterns and a few other variable circumstances have a way of creeping upon all gardeners, everywhere. Probably the best source of naturally occurring nitrogen is fresh, properly made, rich, chocolatty-brown compost. If you still haven't started a compost pile, then you're probably wasting one of our most valuable resources: organic matter that becomes nutrient and water-holding humus in your soil.

If you rely heavily upon compost in your garden, as we do in ours, then you'll need to select a fertilizer blend with minimal nitrogen. If you don't use compost (and every caring gardener should), more frequent applications of nitrogen will be required. In either case, it's always wisest to send a soil sample every spring through your state's Cooperative Extension Service for testing in your university system's soil testing facility. That way you'll know for certain what you do or do not have in your soil. Along with a complete breakdown of nutrients, pH and organic matter content, you'll be told how to fix many problems. The cost is minimal for the basic test ($10 to $15 in most states - good insurance against failure), and a great investment.

You'll probably find the term "water insoluble nitrogen" on the fertilizer bag (often abbreviated WIN) followed by a percent number. A WIN of less than 15% means it's fast acting, and a WIN over 30% indicates it releases nitrogen more slowly. Since fully soluble nitrogen rapidly leaches out of your soil, a "slow-release" - slower-acting - WIN would be best. Remember to observe the last-application dates mentioned above and be careful about applying slow-release nitrogen-bearing fertilizer beyond about mid-summer. You don't want any soft, tender, unprepared growth in your garden when snow flies! A good, fresh compost, which releases adequate levels of nitrogen slowly, serves the same purpose and is less likely to contaminate your well (or your neighbor's) with nitrates. As you might have guessed, I do like compost(!), partly because when it's done right and made with manure, plant material, kitchen vegetable scraps and a little wood ash and bonemeal, it will finish out at about pH 6.5. That's perfect for most perennials, while avoiding the need for powerful, manmade chemicals.

A lack of nitrogen causes leaves of plants to lose their rich, dark green color and turn varying shades of yellow. That's called "chlorosis," and it usually shows up on lower leaves first. Plants that are starved for nitrogen are usually short, spindly, very slow-growing and yellowed. The more deficient in N, the more yellow leaves become. If the problem is not corrected, but worsens, lower leaves turn brown and die while upper foliage turns light green. Withholding nitrogen would effectively tell a plant that you don't want any more leaves, so it is apt to think it's time to make seeds - to bloom or "bolt."

Without adequate levels of nitrogen, grasses like those in lawns grow slowly and try desperately to set seeds. A healthy lawn with ample nitrogen grows thick and doesn't feel such an urgent need to produce seeds. Annuals that lack sufficient nitrogen grow slowly and look "stunted", pitiful little wretches, languishing in near-starvation. Lettuce that puts on a few feeble leaves and sends up a flower spike without even trying to form a head is starved for, among other things, nitrogen. Rhubarb that flowers far too soon is telling you that, while it may have ample phosphorus and other nutrients, there is much less nitrogen in the soil than it would prefer.

One final point about nitrogen before we move on: you should know that it is common practice in many nurseries to fertilize high-value container-grown plants (including perennials, shrubs and small trees) with a sustained-release fertilizer product. It's a pelleted material - little yellowish beads about the size of small BBs - the most common of which gradually releases 14 nitrogen, 14 phosphorus and 14 potash over the space of three to four months. (There are a number of other formulas, some lasting eight to nine months, frequently used on container shrubs.) A thin and slightly porous polymer/resin outer membrane allows tiny amounts of water-soluble chemical to more or less continuously diffuse through the coating. It is correctly used on houseplants and, if applied early enough in the spring (mid-april or early May in the north), is a good source of food for plants left trapped in dark-colored pots in the hot sun until purchased. The material is more expensive than other forms of fertilization (injection proportioners or hose-end applicators of liquid types, for example) but significantly less labor-intensive. Labor savings insure that this procedure is preferred in many large nurseries.

Trouble is, if the plant hasn't sold by mid-July and the nursery operator sees that it's beginning to look a little stressed-out, he or she often gives it another dose of the same 14-14-14 formula. It doesn't take a master-mathematician to figure out that the pellets (which can last three to four months) will be kicking out 14% nitrogen at the end of October or beyond, far too late for newly-encouraged foliage to harden-off for a severe northern tier winter.

Some would argue that the slow-release of nitrogen diminishes as soil temperature begins its descent during early Fall. I have seen tender new growth on container-grown stock begin anew, however, during a period which most of us know as "Indian Summer" (an oftentimes multiple-week period of unseasonable warmth following the first damaging frost of the season). That vulnerable new growth could only have been stimulated by the presence of a fresh application (or release) of nitrogen. Complicating the issue even further is the oft-forgotten factor of container temperature. Remember: nursery containers are almost always dark colored and are even more likely sitting in sunshine. Actual container temperatures can be considerably higher than ambient seasonal temperatures, further encouraging untimely release of nitrogen from these little pellets.

Of course, if the plant still doesn't sell, plant merchants will be forced to go to what some folks might call extraordinary lengths (some might even say heroics) to help it survive the long winter months so it can be displayed for sale next season. Protection by Styrofoam or other insulating material, or burying under several inches of mulch and plastic are not things a home gardener cares to spend time or money on.

To complicate plant survival problems even further (after all that fattening "food"), towards the end of the nursery retail season when the so-called Fall-Is-For-Planting sales promotion occurs, customers race in to take advantage of presumed "bargains." Many of those plants may have been weakened by abuse and neglect, root bound and perhaps even choked with weeds, or fat on too much fertilizer. Some bargain! Many really good bargains, however, await the patient late-summer plant shopper, if he or she knows what to look for.

Accumulations of this pelleted fertilizer are readily apparent on the surface of containers and, in my opinion, should be scraped or poured off immediately after purchase in mid- to late summer in order to halt the release of too much nitrogen at an inappropriate time.

Now, however, comes a new product: a glued-together tablet of much longer-lasting, pelleted material that some nurseries push below the soil surface (and out of sight). So the customer who might know the facts about the pellets - but doesn't see any - has no way of knowing that a dose of long-acting, sustained-release fertilizer (now lasting eight or nine months) lies out of sight stimulating soft, new growth well past the time for a plant to prepare for cold weather. Yes, the plant may look great but, in many cases, is ill prepared to face a tough northern winter. Sadly, it's a "buyer-beware" situation. My advice is to be very cautious during early- to mid-fall about any plant which looks exceptionally good after spending all spring and summer in a nursery container, or which sport lush, new growth near the approach of Fall. Making your serious and expensive purchases earlier in the season gives you control over the amount of nutrition and quality of care your plants receive.

In all fairness to the many honest and reputable nursery operators, it must be said that their ranks are, thankfully, more heavily populated than the ranks of those who use what I consider questionable tactics to sell inferior products. One surefire method to be certain the plants you purchase are healthy and haven't been chemically abused is to buy from well-established local retailers you know and who's reputation you can trust. Additionally, you may enjoy more success if you make your purchases early in the season at nurseries whose stock remains in gardens or growing beds until the moment of purchase. And keep in mind that a thick layer of fresh (and active) pelleted fertilizer beads on the soil surface in nurseries is a very bright "red flag," warning you to be cautious with your purchases. I'll discuss the subject of Fall sales in greater detail in Chapter Six.

Basically, phosphorus (always the middle number in the formula) is for flowers and strong stems, plays an important role in root and bulb development and does not stimulate soft, new growth. It is essential for cell division both in plants and humans. Without it there can be no growth. A common form of phosphate fertilizer is the man-made chemical superphosphate, a combination of ground phosphate rock treated with a strong acid, usually sulfuric, making the product very soluble and fast-acting. SuperPhos, as this souped-up, super-charged chemical is commonly called, gained early and firm acceptance by larger commercial farmers because of its immediate effect on plants. Its heavy use on farms in many US agricultural regions has caused the build-up of chemical salts, ultimately leading to loss of extensive tracts of once-valuable croplands.

Two widely available alternatives are ground up, untreated rock phosphate and bonemeal. Both are good sources of phosphorus, and both are slow-acting and long-lasting so they won't burn leaves or roots. Personally, I prefer bonemeal. It's routinely between 12% and 16% phosphorus, is about the consistency of cornmeal and lasts about three years in most soils. Perfect! That's about the right timing for digging and dividing plants, and rebuilding a garden's soil foundation!

The following is a brief list of some materials that contain varying amounts of organic (natural) phosphorus. It should be understood that figures can vary widely, depending on which book or authority you consult and where they got their information. Bonemeal, for example, is listed at 21 phosphorus in one book but most retail product in the local garden store is only 12, occasionally 16. Amounts shown are approximate.

Activated sludge 3-6 Fish waste (red snapper) 13

Slaughterhouse waste 16-20 Guano 8

Bonemeal 12-21 Trash ash 5

Colloidal phosphate 18-24 Rock phosphate 28-32

Cottonseed hull ash 8-9 Wood ash 1-2

Bonemeal, again, will not burn plants - when used as directed - and is best incorporated into the soil before any plants go in, but it can also be applied locally when planting just one or two new plants or bulbs (or "filling in the gaps"). Bonemeal is liberally applied into our garden soil but we have learned that great care must be taken to avoid spilling any around the surface or even on the sides of the hole where you intend to place a new plant or bulb. If skunks, raccoons or a neighbor's little digger-dog smells it, by the next morning your garden will be turned up side down and in shambles!

One of the most frequently-asked questions here at the nursery and during the discussion period at gardening lectures I deliver goes something like: "My plants look great, all healthy and green, but they don't bloom!" or "How come all I get are leaves and branches but no tomatoes?" So I ask a series of questions about soil and light conditions and what kind of fertilizer they use. Almost always, they say, "Well, I use [insert the name of one of the most widely advertised liquid fertilizers here]!!!" It only takes one more question to solve the problem: "Which formula do you use?" The all-too-common answer: "I don't know . . . the one they advertise on TV!" (A similar admission of benightedness comes when I ask the question, "What was the pH of your soil the last time it was tested?" Questioner: "[blush] I don't think it's ever been tested" or "[frown] I don't need no expensive test . . . I know what's in my dirt!"

Here's the problem: These supposedly wonder-working plant foods are available in a number of formulas for different uses or purposes, a bit of information not granted extensive coverage in the ads. Without careful observation, the natural assumption many viewers make from the splashy ad is that there's only one, and your purchase will bring rewards of beautiful lawns, trees, shrubs, and prize-winning flowers and healthy vegetables. After all, the fellow in the ad appears to be using just one formula on everything in sight (with the exception of rhododendrons and azaleas; a separate commercial advertises a strongly acidic formula for them).

As you might have already suspected I'd say, fertilizers don't work that way. When talking about heavily advertised soluble fertilizers, there's one formula for lawns, one for roses, one for tomatoes and some for other specific uses. Trouble is, folks just grab the first one they see in the store (or accept one handed them by an inexperienced clerk), without reading the label to determine the formula, or realizing it's probably very high in nitrogen. Remember that nitrogen is for foliage (like leafy houseplants, lawns and lettuce); fast, tender growth on just about any plant. It doesn't do a great deal for flowers or fruit. Phosphorus is for flowers and fruit.

A Wrinkle

Actually, you may not need as much supplemental phosphorus in your garden as you might think. You've probably have heard about phosphates contaminating lakes and streams. State and local authorities alike are deeply concerned about phosphorus and what it can do to a body of water. And with good cause! A bloom of an undesirable species of algae resulting from an overabundance of phosphorus, uses up available oxygen; fish and other water creatures suffocate; and the odor of rotting fish and a dying ecosystem is very dissatisfying.

Oddly enough, much of the phosphorus contamination in some lakes and ponds comes right from the soil in its watershed - the land immediately surrounding a body of water that slopes down to its level. A gentle rain soaks into soil and gradually finds its way into the water table where it becomes part of a valuable resource, water for drinking, irrigation and maintenance of lake levels. A tremendous, pounding storm, however, sends large droplets of rain slamming into the ground, dislodging phosphate-laden particles, forming muddy rivulets which merge to gouge out gullies, and the whole muddy mess ends up in the lake! Irresponsible irrigation or run-off control can result in a similar scenario.

To compound the problem, questionable management of some lakes and ponds has resulted in fluctuations of water levels frequently resulting in erosion of shore lands. Once again, resident phosphorus in the soil is dissolved and becomes mixed with lake water.

Chemical fertilizers, too, can be a real problem if applied too heavily or if allowed to remain on the surface where rain or irrigation can flush them away before plants have a crack at them. The solution: heavy reliance on compost and other organic materials, and the careful and judicious use of any fertilizer product, an inescapable responsibility. You knew I was going to say that, didn't you?!

A phosphorus deficiency results in weakened stems and reduced plant size and, surprisingly, a deep green color with perhaps a purple tinge. Leaves of some plants will actually turn purple on their undersides, easily noticeable on seedlings. Fruits and vegetables fail to develop, or fall prematurely. The process: a shortage of phosphorus sets up conditions for the production of sugars in plant tissues; the substance anthocyanin is formed which manifests itself as a purple pigment in leaves. The problem: either insufficient phosphorus or (most likely) an inordinately low soil pH, probably combined with insufficient organic matter content. The solution is obvious: a soil test for pH and primary nutrients should quickly and decisively pinpoint the problem. It may be a simple matter of adding some finely ground phosphate rock to raise phosphorus levels. If a test proves the soil is too acidic, the problem may be resolved by adjusting soil pH with ground limestone (magnesium-containing lime supplies an important micronutrient that plants also require) and adding compost, aged manure or, if nothing better is available, peat, followed by thoroughly working these amendments into the soil.

There is one more primary nutrient to consider, and it's just as important to plants as were the first two discussed. Potassium (K - always the third number in the fertilizer formula) is essential for growth and is usually needed in fairly large amounts by plants. Most soils normally contain adequate amounts of K, but a number of circumstances may cause its depletion in our gardens.

Potash is needed by the plant during the production and movement of carbohydrates (sugar is a common carbohydrate), and is involved in nitrogen metabolism. Sound a little confusing? To simplify things a bit, just think of potassium as being necessary for good strong roots and bulbs. Long-time vegetable gardeners, for example, know that putting wood ashes (which are high in potash) in soil used for growing beets makes for big, tasty beets. The part most of us eat is the root. Get the picture?

For an organic gardener, ashes are a great source of potash. Ash also contains some phosphorus, boron and other minor elements used by plants. A word of caution, however: use only wood ash. Coal ash can be very toxic in your garden. Toxicity problems may also occur after application of ashes derived from trash, garbage, and some older printed papers as well. Since ashes also serve much the same purpose as lime to alter soil pH, no more than 20 pounds of ash per 1000 square feet of garden space should ever be applied. Wood ash also serves to raise soil pH, with twice as much ash applied as limestone (by weight) for the same effect. Considering the problem of run-off over frozen ground during winter, it would be best to store the ash dry until it can be spread and immediately tilled into the soil.

Here is a short list of readily-available natural materials which contain varying amounts of potassium. Once again, remember that numbers may vary and are approximate.

• Alfalfa hay 2-3

• Cottonseed hull ash 24

• Granite dust 3-5

• Greensand 5-6

• Seaweed 5

• Wood ash 7

Most plants need and consume significant quantities of potash. When supplies are drastically reduced, plants grow slowly and are weak, having a poorly developed root system. Older leaves curl and appear very hungry, and develop a brown margin called "necrosis." As the deficiency becomes more severe, upper leaves gradually turn yellow and die within a short time. Characteristically, yellowing begins at the leaf edge and progresses toward the center, or yellow spots near the edge enlarge and connect. Properly made compost utilizing a good mix of green garden wastes and barnyard manure usually contains sufficient levels of potash. Use such compost liberally, working well into soils. If the deficiency is severe (revealed by soil test), add wood ashes, granite dust or greensand (available at most garden centers and farm supplies). Prevention: periodic soil testing (recommended: annually) would quickly alert you to impending problems; heavy reliance on compost will go a long way to avoiding problems in the future.

In addition to the three primary nutrients detailed above, plants also require small - in some cases, tiny - amounts of a number of other elements. Commonly called "trace" elements, 13 additional substances (in a sense, chemicals) are recognized by soil experts as important to help plants grow and produce seed. In actual fact, approximately 57 micronutrients are required for truly healthy growth! More on this subject later.

All but three of these 13 "important" elements are provided to plants by the healthy soil in which they live. Oxygen, hydrogen and carbon (in the form of carbon dioxide [CO2]) are present in great abundance in the air around our plants and us.

While only very tiny quantities of these trace elements are required, too much can create some serious complications for plants. Deficiency of trace elements is less likely in soils that have been treated with respect and maintained with an abundance of organic matter - humus - composed of composted plant residues and animal wastes.

Here is a list of the remaining ten trace elements commonly considered important and, briefly, how a deficiency manifests itself in plants:

• Boron - plants will "dwarf;" stems crack and may rot at the center.

• Calcium - blossom-end-rot in tomatoes; tips and margins of leaves turn pale.

• Chlorine - inadequate root growth and wilting or drooping of upper foliage.

• Copper - unexplained dieback; underdeveloped tomatoes; poor growth.

• Iron - shortages are most common in intensive agricultural areas of the country. Chlorosis (weak and sickly, yellowing foliage).

• Magnesium -unexplained markings (mottled-appearance) in leaves, blossoms and sometimes fruit.

• Manganese - sickly and yellow leaves and poor growth.

• Molybdenum - margins of leaves blacken (necrosis) and die.

• Sulfur - unexplained slowed growth; leaves turn brown or black (necrosis) and die.

• Zinc - unexplained dieback of plant parts; reduced yield.

Bear in mind that there are many more minor nutrients than contained in this abbreviated list which plants - and those who eat them - require to be truly healthy. In actual fact, plants require about 60 total; human physiology requires something near 90 for optimum health! Given the documented nutritionally poor condition of twentieth-century production soils, it is highly unlikely that anyone, with the possible exception of those on an intensive vitamin/mineral supplement program, is getting a full load of all 90 elements.

Let me repeat, yet again, that if your soil is rich and deep, and you rely heavily on compost and other organic materials for plant nutrition, it is unlikely that you'll ever see a significant deficiency of trace elements in the home garden. Those who have incredibly poor soil, devoid of humus, choked with weeds and littered with stones, and who pour in nothing but chemical fertilizers containing only three "nutrients," are the ones most likely to have trouble. The way to prevent that kind of woe and anguish should be obvious by now!

Quite frequently, gardeners say they fertilize "Like the book [or salesperson at the store] says," but it never seems to do any good! Plants still have yellow foliage and very few flowers, and those they have are perched atop spindly, weak stems. I love playing a sort of modern, garden-detective Sherlock Holmes, and so I ask my standard series of questions. It is usually revealed that they sprinkle their fertilizer on top and never till it in. Nitrogen, being both very soluble and highly volatile, is either quickly lost to the air or dissolves and washes right through soil with low humus content, and the roots grab only a little as it goes by. Non-chemical forms of phosphorus and potassium, on the other hand, are largely stationary, remaining very near where applied. But plant roots are not supposed to be on the surface. In most cases, feeder roots are several inches below the surface. Scattering fertilizer granules around plants and not cultivating them in, forces roots to gradually move up to get part of their dinner. As you might expect, such circumstances leave them highly vulnerable to drought and later cultivation damage. The solution: cultivate fertilizer to a depth of at least two or three inches - where the roots are - being careful, of course, not to do any serious damage to delicate feeder roots.

Consider also that most chemical fertilizers are salts. Water always flows toward a salt in an effort to dilute or balance it. Heavy application of fertilizer near plants not only pulls moisture away from soil near roots, but may also draw water from roots themselves. Most folks call that burning, and I guess we've all seen it. For those who feel they must use chemicals, the solution is threefold: 1. Always apply the correct amount of fertilizer and cultivate it in; 2. Always water it in well; and 3. Never apply a dry fertilizer on dry ground, especially near a wilted plant.

A SOIL TEST - ANSWER TO MANY PROBLEMS!

Picture in your mind a carpenter, just beginning to build a house. Most good carpenters know their materials, and work from a precise plan called a blueprint. But our carpenter has never received any formal training in home building and hasn't the faintest notion of how to read a blueprint. Fact is, he doesn't even have one! How totally frustrating his job will be! What a funny-looking building he'll erect! Wires and pipes all over the place; windows and doors crooked; roof leaking. And, likely as not, the structure will come crashing down during the next heavy rain or burn to the ground soon after the first match is struck in the fireplace or the first toaster is plugged in, or light switch flipped.

How very much like more than a few gardens we've all seen. No plan, no foundation (soil preparation); no order; no charm and, most importantly, no clue as to existing soil nutrition or pH! Just dump in some "loam" and a little cheap super-fertilizer, then hope for the best. It, like the poorly-built house, is problem-cluttered, frustrating, weed-choked, and "funny-looking," destined to come crashing down.

I've often posed the question, "If you woke up at 4 a.m. and decided to read a good book, got your milk and cookies, propped yourself up on pillows, put on your glasses, opened to the first page but, with clenched teeth and intractable resolve, refused to turn on the light, how much reading would be accomplished?" Reading in the dark is not very satisfying. Gardening in the darkness of diminished information (or in the presence of misinformation) isn't remarkably satisfying either!

Please forgive the repetition. . .but this is really an important 'key'! You have a tremendous resource at your immediate disposal. It is no longer necessary to garden in the "dark." You don't have to wonder what your pH or soil nutrition is. For a small fee and a couple of stamps you can send a sample of your garden soil to the state-operated soil testing laboratory for complete analysis of pH, humus and primary nutrients. Then you'll know what you've got so there'll be no doubt about how much lime, fertilizer or organic matter to add.

It's like turning on a light in the dark, or working from a plan. Everything just seems to come into focus and shift into perspective. Problems almost seem to solve themselves! Your Cooperative Extension Service can help you with forms, mailing boxes and counsel. What an opportunity!   (Back To Table of Contents)

Actually, very little. Unless, of course, that gardener wanted the longed-for garden "masterpiece" to be one that would cause passers-by to pull over and admire because of its beauty, order and charm.

There are a great many factors to consider when going through the planning stages of creating a magnificent new garden. I'm not talking about some of the more commonly preached tactics to employ when actually laying out a garden plot, stretching out a garden hose to outline the shape or contours of the bed, for example. Any fifth grader with slightly better than marginal reading comprehension and recall can find those mechanical directions in any number of colorfully illustrated books by people who have made themselves expert in that area. Here, instead, is a partial list of some of those factors that are seldom, if ever, given serious thought, but which I consider important:

Make a solid commitment! All gardens should begin with this initial, decisive, step. Simple and logical as that may appear, however, a remarkably small contingent of would-be gardeners ever give commitment serious thought. Would you decide upon a career change without first making a commitment to give it your very best shot, to go all the way, so to speak? Would a responsible parent give a youngster a living, breathing pet without first extracting a firm commitment from the child to take care of it, feed it, bathe it, clean up after it, exercise it, love it? There's much to think about when changing careers. There's about as much to consider when accepting most of the responsibility for the care and upbringing of a pet. But a garden? Now that takes some real, honest-to-goodness commitment!

Think about it. If a garden is to be any kind of success, a showplace into which you would be proud and pleased to invite your friends and neighbors, free of weeds and awful bugs, beautifully laid-out and resplendent with either the subtleties or vibrancy of color, textures and fragrances you've chosen to incorporate, and able to hold its own against the frequent barbs of Nature, then you'll be spending a great deal of time out there! Are you certain you're ready to dedicate the required time, energy and elbow grease to see it to completion?

Significantly complicating the matter is the inevitable outlay of cold, hard cash to install and maintain an attractive and productive garden. I'm here to tell you that it costs less to do the job right the first time than it surely will if you find yourself paying again to have it done over a second time! An early teacher/mentor (to whose memory this book is dedicated) once told me, "If you've got no intention of doing the job right the first time and seeing it through to the end, then you're better off not doing the job at all."

Weeds will quickly colonize, then spread throughout a new garden, unless you stay on your toes - - uh, I mean knees! It takes real commitment to remain at least one step ahead of weeds!

Insects and plant diseases, like weeds, seem to come out of nowhere then go on a rampage roughly akin to that of Atilla the Hun! (See Chapter Seven to get the inside scoop on dealing with uninvited weed, bug and disease "guests".)

Most gardeners find themselves faced with the sometimes unpleasant and inconvenient tasks of rushing to handle minor crises tossed out by Nature. Will you agree, before you start your garden, to make time for setting a sprinkler, mowing, aerating, liming and feeding your lawn, or performing routine maintenance like trimming, staking, tying and deadheading? Carefully consider and decide what your level of commitment is to be. It's a decision destined to determine lasting success¾ or embarrassing failure and frustration.

Educate yourself! Our nursery/gardens have been a center of gardening guidance going on twelve years now (1999). During that time, literally thousands of people have walked the "idea gardens" and Oooo'd and Ahhhh'd about this or that plant, flower, idea or bed. Hundreds of those well-meaning visitors have, with hardly a second thought, purchased plants that they didn't have even a clue about how to care for. Intent on taking them home to be plunked into a patch of unimproved "dirt," they say in effect, "There...you're on your own, baby!"

My natural tendency is to make recommendations about light, soil preparation, soil nutrition and general care. Very often my suggestions go literally in one ear and out the other. Some are actually offended that another person presumes to tell them how to take care of their plants or their garden! Very few visitors to our gardens leave without an informational culture sheet or bulletin in their hand. I'm convinced, however, that some of those "tip" sheets are quickly and irretrievably lost to the jumble of a handbag, hip pocket, glove compartment or trunk. What's worse, it's almost a sure bet that an alarming number of would-be gardeners either simply don't care, or have been mis-informed by a well-meaning but inexperienced friend, a misguided neighbor or an equally ill-informed gardening "expert."

Recall an earlier reference to the folly of practicing medicine without first educating oneself. The same principle applies to successful gardening. Taking on the task of being a successful gardener is really a daunting responsibility. Common sense and prudence loudly dictates the need to learn the basics, those "keys" which will quickly and efficiently unlock and allow access to the secrets, a grasp of which is so necessary if one is to be a truly successful gardener. Set aside the time to read at least one good book on gardening (I'd recommend one which is both a best seller and which is not filled ad nauseam with page after page of professional photographs and glowing descriptions of an expensively-maintained showcase garden in some distant country. Save the coffee-table fluff books for inspiration and rainy day entertainment. What a budding gardener needs is a "meat 'n potatoes" book filled with basic gardening nuts 'n bolts facts! I'll suggest one in particular later.).

Join your local garden group and pick the brains of every successful gardener you can sit or stand next to (proof's in the pudding, you know!). They're easy to spot: everyone will be bombarding them with questions!

Take a course through your state's university system. Your local Cooperative Extension Service is a mother lode of reliable, tried-tested-and-true information and guidance. If they don't have a ready answer, you can bet your muck-boots they'll find one! Become a Master Gardener, then add Master Composter to your personal credits. Fact is, one of the very best ways to learn how to do it right is to teach. Try that! Believe me, when you've completed a research project on a subject to present before a room full of people some of which may well love little more than to see you pinned to the wall in embarrassment, you'll know what you're talking about! If you're going to do this gardening thing, don't stop at the halfway mark. Go the distance. Make an expert out of yourself!

Take the time to visit the gardens of others, and bring along a notebook. Join a tour of gardens in your area. For that matter, look outside of your area. Perhaps you could pull a group together and travel to some "away" city to see what gardeners in other areas have accomplished. Most successful gardeners would be thrilled to walk you through their gardens, perhaps even share some of their methods, ideas and secrets, even to "strangers." The whole world is a resource! Remember that the greatest value in life is experience, acquired second-hand. (See Chapter 10 for more about our responsibilities when in the gardens of others.)

Work with your garden's physical characteristics. Another of the several widely neglected duties of prospective gardeners is to carefully and thoroughly evaluate what they have - existing resources - then square those existing characteristics with what they want. Rarely is any second thought given to sun angle, shade cast by permanent structures like buildings, or ever enlarging changing features like trees or large shrubs. Viewing angle is an important consideration. Will your garden be designed and laid-out for the public to see and enjoy? Or is your plan to reserve its special charm just for you? Should it be fully visible from the kitchen, bedroom or living room window? Does the warm, red glow of late afternoon sunlight appeal to you? Or would you rather your new garden be bathed in the refreshing golden radiance of sunrise? How about pathways? And broad, open spaces for a verdant carpet of green? Would you prefer a "secret," hideaway nook known only to you and your closest companions? Or one mounted on a hill visible by all? Will your garden be loud and brash, or soft, quiet and soothing? Will your garden be effected by wind? (Wind usually comes from a different direction in the summer than it does during winter.)

Whatever your individual circumstances, you decide! It's your garden! Just let it be a well thought out and carefully planned masterpiece, not some spur-of-the-moment, second-rate, slapped-together jumble of tasteless and chaotic "evolution" - and cancelled checks. (Refer to Chapter Six for more on selecting plants suitable for your hardiness zone and local characteristics.)

Get your plan down on paper! This one actually falls hot on the heels of commitment. All success-oriented people know that once a commitment or plan is chiseled in stone, so to speak (written down on paper), it's quite literally "locked-in", especially if other members of your family or social circle know about it. It's so easy to change one's mind when the plan is only in the mind! All my life I've been a mind-changer, formulating a new schedule or personal itinerary more frequently than most babies get changed. Then I realized just how powerful the written word really is. Now, very few of my goals and plans rely on the frailty of memory; everything goes either onto paper or into my computer. Profound decisions often end up on index cards in my shirt pocket, wallet or on the bathroom mirror. Go ahead and try it. Announce a plan to those closest to you by posting it in full, potentially embarrassing view on the morning mirror or refrigerator and see how fixed and permanent your plan becomes!

Start with a good-sized piece of paper and a pencil with a good eraser. Grid paper is helpful if you have some. First, sketch in the outline of your home and include all windows and doors, drive, paths, garage and whatever else you have which is permanent. Then add in all existing trees, try to show how far the leaves and branches extend. Now show where morning and afternoon sun comes during mid-summer. That will tell you where your sunny, partly sunny and shady spots are.

Once those basics are documented, outline existing garden plots and things like boulders, poles, stonewalls. If you already have plants or shrubs in place, draw them in. If you're starting with nothing, as we've done several times in our lives, draw an outline of what you'd like in the way of a garden or bed. I believe it's better to keep things relatively simple, bright, cheerful and positive. Try to avoid anything that's artificial or may look out-of-place or contrived.

Remember to consider seasonal changes in sun angle. I'd suggest that you spend one entire season, before you establish a new garden, carefully observing and noting exactly where the sunlight comes from and where it does or does not shine in your proposed garden. Plot it out on paper. By the end of that first season you'll know exactly how much sunlight or shade every part receives. The extra year will give you time to prepare and amend the soil, get all the weeds out and provide ample opportunity to really think-out what you're about to do.

From here on, you're pretty much on your own. Personal preference reigns supreme. You do what YOU want to do. Here's a short list of tips and suggestions that should help.

Remember to first check the pH of your soil. Most garden plants (ornamentals and vegetables included) prefer a soil pH of between 6.5 and 7.5. Some, of course, will object to such a broad generalization but in my experience, that's the range that has given the most satisfying results. In some parts of the country, you'll need to add sufficient lime or wood ash to adjust pH up to overcome acidic conditions. Other areas may need to have pH adjusted down to overcome overly alkaline conditions. Smile!. . .A soil test will tell the story.

Generally, tall things like hollyhocks and delphiniums go toward the back; short things in the front; medium plants somewhere in between, so the display gradually 'steps up' from front to rear.

Be careful with colors. To my way of thinking, for example, bright red monarda ('Cambridge Scarlet') is likely to clash with just about everything. However color can be used for striking effect. If you really like a particular color, let your imagination soar! I have met a number of gardeners who were looking for anything that bloomed in white. Their entire garden consisted of white flowers and silvery-gray foliage. Intriguing idea. I think they called it a "moon-garden". Some others design for texture or fragrance. The sky's the limit!

Pay careful attention to abbreviations in seed catalogs which show season of bloom: E = early, M = mid-season, L = late.

Most of the first bright and cheery spots of Spring color are bulbs you plant in the Fall - crocus, tulips, daffodils and others. They stay right in the ground and you can plant other perennials (or annuals) right next to them. That way you won't have any blank spots in your flowerbed later in the season.

Some ornamentals prefer full sun; some half sun; some none at all. Follow the advice of your local gardening expert, nurseryman or the instructions in your catalogs or other reference books. And speaking of catalogs, some of them are a treasure-trove of valuable information!

Remember that since most ornamentals (especially perennials) are apt to be where you plant them for perhaps several years, you should really do a bang-up job of preparing the soil they're to be planted in. Basically, your soil should be deep, loose, rich, well drained and free of invading tree roots, rampaging weeds and other pests.

Starting seedlings of plants you want is by far the most economical method, unless you have deep pockets or a friend or relative who will share what they have with you. Of course there's always the chance you'll ultimately end up with many more than you have room for; when that occurs, you can share with someone else!

Larger, established plants can be purchased from nurseries or your catalogs. Plants from mail-order type catalogs are frequently dormant, bare-rooted, sometimes nearly microscopic and have been scared half to death by the trip from their place to yours. In the average home garden, it may take them a long time to recover from the trauma of digging, dividing (oftentimes "butchering"), sorting, storing, packing, shipping and subsequent replanting. When ordering by mail (or over the Internet), guarantees are crucial! Read the fine print. Your best bet is to buy from a local grower where you can. . .

Select well-rooted, healthy, second-year plants that have spent at least one winter outdoors, in the ground, in your USDA hardiness zone. Your local plant merchant is also a reasonably reliable source of local cultural information, ever-ready assistance and heaps of encouragement. More on dealing with seed and bulb companies in a later chapter.

I suggest you check out the library or bookstore for a good book on perennials, if that's your "thing." We found a particularly well written and beautifully illustrated volume from Rodale Press, Inc., 1985, by Jeff and Marilyn Cox, titled THE PERENNIAL GARDEN, Color Harmonies Through The Seasons (ISBN 0-87857-573-1). Consider it highly recommended. Most book stores either have it or can order it. . .about $20.    (Back To Table of Contents) 

Finally some "nuts 'n bolts." To be honest - if not downright blunt - if you don't do a real bang-up job of preparing the soil (your garden's all-important "foundation") before you plant, you'd probably be better off seeding it in grass or rolling out a thick layer of asphalt. That's how important soil preparation really is. Thorough soil preparation is high on the list of crucial and decisive "keys" to successful gardening, and one which is almost universally neglected.

How do you achieve almost perfect, deep, rich, dark and loose soil? Some people might say you purchase it through a real estate agent. After a thorough search of available properties, you locate the one with the very best soil, and buy it. That, of course, is totally unrealistic. In our real world, most of us must deal with what we have rather than what might be available on the next street. In real life, it takes a full-size spade, plenty of elbow grease and an almost infinite amount of persistence and patience.

Some prefer to go after a garden plot with a small rototiller but little tillers simply can't get the job done right. Most small-garden or cultivator-type tillers are made to scratch the surface down to about four - perhaps five - inches deep, tops. Advertising for small, lightweight tillers may claim a cultivating depth of ten inches or more but forcing that level of performance from a 20- or 25-pound, gasoline powered mini-cultivator is simply asking too much, unless your garden is only a few square feet. They are cultivators, meant to scratch a few surface inches, not heavy-duty rototillers designed to replace a twelve inch spade and the application of concerted effort.

A larger home garden size machine, which will still cut only six inches deep, is generally too pricey for the average gardener. Even large, tractor-driven rototillers, which most operators will claim to be able to dig down a foot or more, in my experience cannot possibly penetrate more than 7 or 8 inches (they're noisy, powerful and monstrously heavy machines which, while scratching the surface few inches, seriously compact large sections of "tilled" soil with their wide, burgeoning tires; I've had larger plots "tilled" up by these brutes and, while they appeared to be cutting in deep, when all was said and done, 90% of the area had been broken up to a depth of only 4 to 6 inches). Tillers do have their purpose but it usually comes later, after the real work is done.

Most shovels, on other hand, cut almost a foot deep, and that's what you should do: drive that shovel straight down right to the hilt and turn the soil completely upside-down. I prefer a shovel that is spade-shaped rather than one with a square cutting edge (old habits die hard, especially when they're proven successful by decades of rewarding experience). A spading fork works well in soil which has been previously worked but, generally, it can't deal with tree roots or large stones. So, stick with a good, sharpened spade.

Break lumps and clods into smaller pieces. Pick out any weeds, stones, roots or anything else that doesn't belong. A good sharp edge on your shovel helps cut through small to medium-size roots. My jack-knife is always kept razor sharp and in my hip pocket for use on those roots which need a little extra nudging to release their grip. I've even been known to have a short-handled axe (also razor sharp) nearby. And don't be afraid to hack through a root or two, especially from woodland trees like maple, oak, birch, beech, pine, fir, larch and spruce. Please note that I didn't say to hack away all or most of the roots - be reasonable! Of course you'll want to be a little more careful around roots of ornamental shrubs and trees. If in doubt, you're better erring on the side of caution. A formula that has served me well restricts cutting and removal of tree roots to less than 1/4th of the total feeder root system, only if those roots threaten the water or nutrition of more valuable ornamental plants. Now, I know someone will pop up and dispute that 1/4th figure. It has served me well through several tree-root-infested properties. I have never harmed a tree by clipping a few roots. Fact is, they seem to grow even better after a little minor "surgery."

Some people might be tempted to cover very dense roots with an additional few-inch-layer of topsoil or other fill. That is an option but adding a fresh, new layer of richness will likely result in much healthier trees and, eventually, exquisitely-dense new feeder roots. Additionally, applying too much new soil under trees could easily result in their literal suffocation. I'd guess that anything over 5 or 6 inches would be too much. It really boils down to a true catch-22 situation. My advice to most gardeners determined to locate their garden where there is intense tree-root competition is to improve soil condition as best as possible, then select plants which are tough enough and determined enough to coexist in the difficult location, rather than suffer inevitable recurring root-control frustrations.

The existence of that many roots implies a fair amount of shade. A few very attractive examples of plants which can handle that much shade are hosta, astilbe, dicentra, woodland ferns, ajuga, Japanese primroses, goatsbeard, rogersia, ligularia ("Desdemona" seems to handle adversity better than "The Rocket") and a whole host of charming woodland wildflowers. Speaking of hosta, please don't get caught up in the 'one-plant-per-variety' rut. Customers frequently ask what will do well in their shady location. Some almost instantly recoil at the first mention of hosta and proclaim, "Oh, I already have a hosta!" There are now more than three thousand varieties of hosta. About two-thirds of those are absolutely stunning in their wide and delightful, and sometimes breathtaking, variation of foliage color, size, texture and surface, and their flower size, shape, fragrance, color and season. The same thing could be said about so many other totally wonderful shade- and sun-loving species: "Oh, I already have one of those!" Limiting yourself to just one variety is like saying, "Well, yes I do have several acres of gardens and fields and I really do like shade plants. But I already have a tree!"

Sorry about the diversion; now back to soil preparation. Some folks suggest what's called "double-digging" which involves digging another ten or twelve inches below that first level, into the subsoil. That may work in the Great Plains states but not very often here in Maine. Do the best you can. Actually, digging down deeper into the subsoil when possible is not a bad idea. Along with providing for better and deeper root penetration and moisture retention, subsoil usually contains a storehouse of micronutrients which, in all likelihood, have been sorely, if not totally, depleted nearer the surface. Garden soils at our nursery are routinely cleared of plants and completely re-built at least every three or four years, more frequently if we can find the time and energy. We dig down until we've hit ledge or brought up about an inch or more of usually tan-colored subsoil (or, occasionally, reddish-tan hardpan) which is then mixed with the much darker, higher humus content topsoil.

Continue turning the soil over until the whole plot is upside-down and broken into little pieces. Remove roots, weeds, stones and pest insects. Now comes the fun part: add a healthy layer (at very least three or four inches, preferably five or six!) of rich, dark compost or well-rotted animal waste. If you have a ready source of decayed leaves or other suitable organic matter, by all means, use it. If your soil is clay and tends to be dense and easily compacted, an inch or two of fine to medium sand will help loosen it up. I ask our local contractor for the dirtiest, dustiest, screened sand he can find. It's less expensive, more readily available, and has the texture that has given us the best results. Besides, while I've never actually had the material tested, all that very fine, dusty grit (rock dust) is probably loaded with some of the micro-nutrients our gardens need. A caution about using sand to lighten clay soils: if organic matter levels are low after sand is added, and the clay is allowed to dry out, your soil may become as hard and compacted as concrete! So keep the coarse organic matter content high.

Peatmoss is suitable for loosening dense or compacted soil too, but may burden your early spring budget. About the only peatmoss that gets into our gardens is salvaged from dumped-out nursery containers and the few leftover 6-packs of annuals. Peatmoss is essentially inert, having virtually no nutritional value and, when applied improperly, acts like a thirsty sponge or wick. Precious water is pulled away from plants and allowed to evaporate int